Everything about Alfred The Great totally explained
» For other meanings see Alfred the Great (disambiguation).
Alfred the Great (also
Ælfred from the
Old English Ælfrēd, ) (c.
849 –
26 October 899) was king of the southern
Anglo-Saxon kingdom of
Wessex from
871 to
899. Alfred is noted for his defence of the kingdom against the
Danish Vikings, becoming the only
English King to be awarded the
epithet "the Great". Alfred was the first
King of the West Saxons to style himself "
King of the Anglo-Saxons". Details of his life are discussed in a work by the
Welsh scholar
Asser. Alfred was a learned man, and encouraged education and improved his kingdom's
law system as well as its
military structure.
Childhood
Alfred was born sometime between 847 and 849 at
Wantage in the present-day
ceremonial county of
Oxfordshire (in the
historic county of
Berkshire). He was the fifth and youngest son of King
Æthelwulf of Wessex, by his first wife,
Osburga. In
868 Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of Ethelred Mucill.
At five years old, Alfred is said to have been sent to
Rome where, according to the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he was confirmed by
Pope Leo IV who "anointed him as king."
Victorian writers interpreted this as an anticipatory
coronation in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. However, this coronation couldn't have been foreseen at the time, since Alfred had three living older brothers. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a "
consul" and a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion. It may also be based on Alfred later having accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome and spending some time at the court of
Charles the Bald,
King of the Franks, around 854–855. On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son Æthelbald. Æthelwulf died in
858, and Wessex was ruled by three of Alfred's brothers in succession.
Asser tells the story about how as a child Alfred won a prize of a volume of poetry in English, offered by his mother to the first of her children able to memorize it. This story may be true, or it may be a legend designed to illustrate the young Alfred's love of learning.
Under Ethelred
During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers,
Æthelbald and
Ethelbert, Alfred isn't mentioned. However with the accession of the third brother,
Ethelred, in
866, the public life of Alfred began. It is during this period that Asser applies to him the unique title of "secundarius", which may indicate a position akin to that of the
Celtic
tanist, a recognized successor closely associated with the reigning monarch. It is possible that this arrangement was sanctioned by the
Witenagemot, to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Ethelred fall in battle. The arrangement of crowning a successor as Royal prince and military commander is well-known among
Germanic tribes, such as the
Swedes and
Franks, with whom the Anglo-Saxons had close ties.
In
868, Alfred is recorded fighting beside his brother Ethelred, in an unsuccessful attempt to keep the invading Danes out of the adjoining
Kingdom of Mercia. For nearly two years, Wessex was spared attacks because Alfred paid the
Vikings to leave him alone. However, at the end of
870, the Danes arrived in his homeland. The year that followed has been called "Alfred's year of battles". Nine martial engagements were fought with varying fortunes, though the place and date of two of the battles have not been recorded. In Berkshire, a successful skirmish at the
Battle of Englefield, on
31 December 870, was followed by a severe defeat at the
Siege and Battle of Reading, on
5 January 871, and then, four days later, a brilliant victory at the
Battle of Ashdown on the
Berkshire Downs, possibly near
Compton or
Aldworth. Alfred is particularly credited with the success of this latter conflict. However, later that month, on
22 January, the English were again defeated at
Basing and, on the following
22 March at the
Battle of Merton (perhaps Marden in
Wiltshire or Martin in
Dorset) in which Ethelred was killed. The two unidentified battles may also have occurred in between.
King at war
In
April 871, King Ethelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, despite the fact that Ethelred left two young sons. Although contemporary turmoil meant the accession of Alfred—an adult with military experience and patronage resources—over his nephews went unchallenged, he remained obliged to secure their property rights. While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and then again in his presence at
Wilton in May. Following this, peace was made and, for the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England. However, in
876, under their new leader,
Guthrum, the Danes slipped past the English army and attacked
Wareham in Dorset. From there, early in
877, and under the pretext of talks, they moved westwards and took
Exeter in
Devon. There, Alfred blockaded them, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. They withdrew to Mercia but, in January
878, made a sudden attack on
Chippenham, a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas, "and most of the people they reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at
Athelney, and from that fort kept fighting against the foe" (
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).
A popular legend tells how, when he first fled to the
Somerset Levels, Alfred was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she'd left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn and was taken to task by the woman upon her return. Upon realizing the king's identity, the woman apologised profusely, but Alfred insisted that he was the one who needed to apologise. From his fort at Athelney, a marshy island near
North Petherton, Alfred was able to mount an effective resistance movement while rallying the local militia from
Somerset,
Wiltshire and
Hampshire.
Another story relates how Alfred disguised himself as a
minstrel in order to gain entry to Guthrum's camp and discover his plans. This supposedly led to the
Battle of Edington, near
Westbury, Wiltshire. The result was a decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted and, according to Asser, Guthrum and 29 of his chief men received
baptism when they signed the
Treaty of Wedmore. As a result,
England became split in two: the southwestern half was kept by the
Saxons, and the northeastern half including
London, thence known as the
Danelaw, was kept by the Vikings. By the following year (
879), both Wessex and Mercia, west of
Watling Street, were cleared of the invaders.
For the next few years there was peace, with the Danes being kept busy in Europe. A landing in Kent in 884 or 885 close to
Plucks Gutter, though successfully repelled, encouraged the
East Anglian Danes to rise up. The measures taken by Alfred to repress this uprising culminated in the taking of London in
885 or
886, and an agreement was reached between Alfred and Guthrum, known as the
Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum. Once more, for a time, there was a lull, but in the autumn of
892 or
893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in Europe somewhat precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body at
Appledore, Kent, and the lesser, under
Haesten, at
Milton also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them, indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonisation. Alfred, in
893 or
894, took up a position from whence he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Haesten, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck northwestwards. They were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son,
Edward, and were defeated in a general engagement at
Farnham in
Surrey. They were obliged to take refuge on an island in the
Hertfordshire Colne, where they were blockaded and were ultimately compelled to submit. The force fell back on Essex and, after suffering another defeat at
Benfleet, coalesced with Haesten's force at Shoebury.
Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging
Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the
North Devon shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the Siege of Exeter. The fate of the other place isn't recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march up the
Thames Valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of
Mercia,
Wiltshire and
Somerset, and made to head off to the northwest, being finally overtaken and blockaded at
Buttington. Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the
River Wye, others with Buttington near
Welshpool. An attempt to break through the English lines was defeated. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of
Chester. The English didn't attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood. Early in
894 (or
895), want of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in
895 (or
896), the Danes drew their ships up the
Thames and
Lea and fortified themselves twenty miles (32 km) north of London. A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but later in the year, Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were out-manoeuvred. They struck off northwestwards and wintered at
Bridgenorth. The next year,
896 (or
897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to
Northumbria, some to
East Anglia. Those who had no connections in England withdrew back to
Europe.
Reorganization
After the dispersal of the Danish invaders, Alfred turned his attention to the increase of the
navy, partly to repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wessex, and to prevent the landing of fresh invaders. This is not, as often asserted, the beginning of the
English navy. There had been earlier naval operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was fought under
Æthelwulf in
851, and earlier ones, possibly in
833 and
840. The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, however, does credit Alfred with the construction of a new type of ship, built according to the king's own designs, "swifter, steadier and also higher/more responsive (hierran) than the others". However, these new ships don't seem to have been a great success, as we hear of them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Nevertheless both the
British Royal Navy and the
United States Navy claim Alfred as the founder of their traditions.
Alfred's main fighting force, the
fyrd, was separated into two, "so that there was always half at home and half out" (
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). The level of organisation required to mobilise his large army in two shifts, of which one was feeding the other, must have been considerable. The complexity which Alfred's administration had attained by
892 is demonstrated by a reasonably reliable charter whose witness list includes a
thesaurius,
cellararius and
pincerna—treasurer, food-keeper and butler. Despite the irritation which Alfred must have felt in
893, when one division, which had "completed their call-up (stemn)", gave up the siege of a Danish army just as Alfred was moving to relieve them, this system seems to have worked remarkably well on the whole.
One of the weaknesses of pre-Alfredian defences had been that, in the absence of a standing army, fortresses were largely left unoccupied, making it very possible for a Viking force to quickly secure a strong strategic position. Alfred substantially upgraded the state of the defences of Wessex, by erecting fortified
burhs (or boroughs) throughout the kingdom. During the systematic excavation of at least four of these (at
Wareham,
Cricklade,
Lydford and
Wallingford) it has been demonstrated that "in every case the rampart associated by the excavators with the borough of the Alfredian period was the primary defence on the site" (Brooks). The obligations for the upkeep and defence of these and many other sites, with permanent garrisons, are further documented in surviving transcripts of the administrative manuscript known as the
Burghal Hidage. Dating from, at least, within twenty years of Alfred's death, if not actually from his reign, it almost certainly reflects Alfredian policy. Comparison of town plans for Wallingford and Wareham with that of Winchester, shows "that they were laid out in the same scheme" (Wormald), thus supporting the proposition that these newly established burhs were also planned as centres of habitation and trade as well as a place of safety in moments of immediate danger. Thereafter, the English population and its wealth were drawn into such towns where it wasn't only safer from Viking soldiers, but also taxable by the King.
Alfred is thus credited with a significant degree of civil reorganisation, especially in the districts ravaged by the Danes. Even if one rejects the thesis crediting the "Burghal Hidage" to Alfred, what is undeniable is that, in the parts of Mercia acquired by Alfred from the Vikings, the
shire system seems now to have been introduced for the first time. This is probably what prompted the legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires,
hundreds and
tithings. Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by history and legend; and he's gained the popular title "protector of the poor". Of the actions of the
Witangemot, we don't hear very much under Alfred. He was certainly anxious to respect its rights, but both the circumstances of the time and the character of the king would have tended to throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure of the Danes had relaxed. He also paid attention to the country's finances, though details are lacking.
Legal reform
Alfred the Great’s most enduring work was his
legal code, called
Deemings, or Book of
Dooms (Book of Laws). Sir
Winston Churchill believed that Alfred blended the
Mosaic Law,
Celtic Law, and old customs of the pagan
Anglo-Saxons. Dr. F.N. Lee traced the parallels between Alfred’s Code and the Mosaic Code. However, as
Thomas Jefferson concluded after tracing the history of English common law: "The
common law existed while the Anglo-Saxons were yet pagans, at a time when they'd never yet heard the name of Christ pronounced or that such a character existed". Churchill stated that Alfred’s Code was amplified by his successors and grew into the body of Customary Law administered by the Shire and The Hundred Courts. This led to the
Charter of Liberties, granted by
Henry I of England, AD 1100.
Foreign relations
Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers, but little definite information is available. His interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of
Orosius. He certainly corresponded with
Elias III, the
Patriarch of Jerusalem, and possibly sent a mission to
India. Contact was also made with the
Caliph in
Baghdad. Embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the
Pope were fairly frequent. Around 890,
Wulfstan of Haithabu undertook a journey from
Haithabu on
Jutland along the
Baltic Sea to the
Prussian trading town of
Truso. Alfred ensured he reported to him details of his trip.
Alfred's relations with the Celtic princes in the western half of
Britain are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign, according to Asser, the
southern Welsh princes, owing to the pressure on them of
North Wales and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the
North Welsh followed their example, and the latter cooperated with the English in the campaign of
893 (or
894). That Alfred sent alms to
Irish as well as to European monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority. The visit of the three pilgrim "Scots" (for example, Irish) to Alfred in
891 is undoubtedly authentic. The story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by Saint Modwenna, though mythical, may show Alfred's interest in that island.
Religion and culture
Very little is known of the church under Alfred. The Danish attacks had been particularly damaging to the monasteries, and though Alfred founded two or three new monasteries and enticed foreign monks to England, monasticism didn't revive significantly during his reign. The Danish raids had also an impact on learning, leading to the practical extinction of Latin even among the clergy: the preface to Alfred's translation of
Pope Gregory I's
Pastoral Care into
Old English bearing eloquent, if not impartial witness, to this.
Alfred established a court school, following the example of
Charlemagne . To this end, he imported scholars like
Grimbald and John the Saxon from Europe, and Asser from South Wales. Not only did the King see to his own education, he also made the series of translations for the instruction of his clergy and people, most of which survive. These belong to the later part of his reign, probably the last four years, of which the chronicles are almost silent.
Apart from the lost
Handboc or
Encheiridion, which seems to have been merely a commonplace book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the
Dialogues of Gregory, a book greatly popular in the
Middle Ages. In this case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend
Werferth,
Bishop of Worcester, the king merely furnishing a foreword. The next work to be undertaken was Gregory's
Pastoral Care, especially for the good of the parish clergy. In this, Alfred keeps very close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to it's one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed of English history. The next two works taken in hand were historical, the
Universal History of
Orosius and
Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The priority should likely be given to the Orosius, but the point has been much debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred so remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the Bede the author's text is closely stuck to, no additions being made, though most of the documents and some other less interesting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But the skeptics can't be regarded as having proved their point.
Alfred's translation of
The Consolation of Philosophy of
Boethius was the most popular philosophical handbook of the Middle Ages. Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there's much in the work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his genius. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works." The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these the writing is prose, in the other a combination of prose and alliterating verse. The latter manuscript was severely damaged in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the authorship of the verse has been much disputed; but likely it also is by Alfred. In fact, he writes in the prelude that he first created a prose work and then used it as the basis for his poem, the
Lays of Boethius, his crowning literary achievement. He spent a great deal of time working on these books, which he tells us he gradually wrote through the many stressful times of his reign to refresh his mind. Of the authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any doubt.
The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the name
Blostman, for example, "Blooms" or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the
Soliloquies of St
Augustine of Hippo, the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains much that's Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who won't increase his understanding while he's in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear."
Beside these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of which fragments only exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of the first fifty
Psalms has been attributed to him; and the attribution, though not proved, is perfectly possible. Additionally, Alfred appears as a character in
The Owl and the Nightingale, where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is attested. Additionally,
The Proverbs of Alfred, which exists for us in a thirteenth century manuscript contains sayings that very likely have their origins partly with the king.
The
Alfred jewel, discovered in
Somerset in
1693, has long been associated with King Alfred because of its
Old English inscription "AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN" (
Alfred Ordered Me To Be Made). This relic, of unknown use, certainly dates from Alfred's reign but it's possibly just one of several that once existed. The inscription does little to clarify the identity of the central figure which has long been believed to depict God or Christ.
Veneration
Alfred is venerated as a Saint by the
Orthodox Church and is regarded as a
hero of the Christian Church in the
Anglican Communion, with a
feast day of
26 October, and may often be found depicted in
stained glass in
Church of England parish churches. Also,
Alfred University was named after him; a large statue of his likeness is in the center of campus.
Family
In 868, Alfred married
Ealhswith, daughter of
Ealdorman of the
Gaini (who is also known as Aethelred Mucill), who was from the
Gainsborough region of
Lincolnshire. She appears to have been the maternal granddaughter of a
King of Mercia. They had five or six children together, including
Edward the Elder, who succeeded his father as king,
Ethelfleda, who would become Queen of
Mercia in her own right, and
Ælfthryth who married
Baldwin II the
Count of Flanders.
Death, burial and legacy
Alfred died on
26 October. The actual year isn't certain, but it wasn't necessarily
901 as stated in the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. How he died is unknown. He was originally buried temporarily in the
Old Minster in
Winchester, then moved to the
New Minster (perhaps built especially to receive his body). When the New Minster moved to Hyde, a little north of the city, in
1110, the monks transferred to
Hyde Abbey along with Alfred's body. His grave was apparently excavated during the building of a new prison in
1788 and the bones scattered. However, bones found on a similar site in the 1860s were also declared to be Alfred's and later buried in Hyde churchyard. Extensive excavations in
1999 revealed what is believed to be his grave-cut, that of his wife Eahlswith, and that of their son Edward the Elder but barely any human remains.
A number of educational establishments are named in Alfred's honour. These are:
- The University of Winchester was named 'King Alfred's College, Winchester' between 1840 and 2004, whereupon it was re-named "University College Winchester".
- Alfred University, as well as Alfred State College located in Alfred, NY, are both named after the king.
- In honour of Alfred, the University of Liverpool created a King Alfred Chair of English Literature.
- University College, Oxford is erroneously said to have been founded by King Alfred.
- King Alfred's College, a secondary school in Wantage, Oxfordshire. The Birthplace of Alfred.
- King's Lodge School, in Chippenham, Wiltshire is so named because King Alfred's hunting lodge is reputed to have stood on or near the site of the school.
- The King Alfred School & Specialist Sports Academy, Burnham Road, Highbridge is so named due to its rough proximity to Brent Knoll (a Beacon Site) and Athelny.
Wantage Statue
The statue of Alfred the Great, situated in the Wantage's market place, was sculpted by
Count Gleichen, a relative of
Queen Victoria, and unveiled on
14 July,
1877 by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the future
Edward VII and his wife.
The statue was vandalised on New Year's eve 2007, losing part of its right arm.
[Further Information]
Get more info on 'Alfred The Great'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://alfred_the_great.totallyexplained.com">Alfred the Great Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
